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For other uses, see .
"Sex drive" redirects here. For other uses, see .
Libido (), colloquially known as sex drive, is a person's overall sexual drive or desire for . Sex drive is influenced by ,
and social factors. Biologically, the
and associated neurotransmitters that act upon the
(primarily
and , respectively) regulate libido in men and women. Social factors, such as work and family, and internal psychological factors, like personality and stress, can affect libido. Sex drive can also be affected by medical conditions, medications, lifestyle and relationship issues, and age (e.g., ). A person who has extremely frequent or a suddenly increased sex drive may be experiencing , while the opposite condition is .
A person may have a desire for sex, but not have the opportunity to act on that desire, or may on personal, moral or religious reasons refrain from acting on the urge. Psychologically, a person's urge can be
or . On the other hand, a person can engage in sexual activity without an actual desire for it. Multiple factors affect human sex drive, including stress, illness, pregnancy, and others.
are often an important factor in the formation and maintenance of
in both men and women. A lack or loss of sexual desire can adversely affect relationships. Changes in the sexual desires of either partner in a sexual relationship, if sustained and unresolved, may cause . The
of a partner may be an indication that a partner's changing sexual desires can no longer be satisfied within the current relationship. Problems can arise from disparity of sexual desires between partners, or poor communication between partners of sexual needs and preferences.
A person is sex starved or
when they have a strong sexual appetite but is sexually frustrated because of a lack of outlet or companion to release their sexual tension.
defined libido as "the energy, regarded as a quantitative magnitude ... of those instincts which have to do with all that may be comprised under the word 'love'." It is the instinct energy or force, contained in what Freud called the , the strictly unconscious structure of the .
Freud developed the idea of a series of developmental phases in which the libido fixates on different erogenous zones—first in the
(exemplified by an infant's pleasure in nursing), then in the
(exemplified by a toddler's pleasure in controlling his or her bowels), then in the , through a
in which the libido is dormant, to its reemergence at puberty in the . ( would later add subdivisions in both oral and anal stages).
Freud pointed out that these libidinal drives can conflict with the conventions of civilised behavior, represented in the psyche by the . It is this need to conform to society and control the libido that leads to tension and disturbance in the individual, prompting the use of
to dissipate the psychic energy of these unmet and mostly unconscious needs into other forms. Excessive use of ego defenses results in . A primary goal of
is to bring the drives of the id into , allowing them to be met directly and thus reducing the patient's reliance on ego defenses.
Freud viewed libido as passing through a series of
within the individual. Failure to adequately adapt to the demands of these different stages could result in libidinal energy becoming 'dammed up' or
in these stages, producing certain pathological character traits in adulthood. Thus the psychopathologized individual for Freud was an immature individual, and the goal of psychoanalysis was to bring these fixations to conscious awareness so that the libido energy would be freed up and available for conscious use in some sort of constructive .
According to Swiss psychiatrist , the libido is identified as psychic energy. Duality (opposition) creates the energy (or libido) of the psyche, which Jung asserts expresses itself only through symbols: "It is the energy that manifests itself in the life process and is perceived subjectively as striving and desire." (Ellenberger, 697)
Defined more narrowly, libido also refers to an individual's urge to engage in , and its
is the force of destruction termed
Libido is governed primarily by activity in the
( and ). Consequently,
and related
(primarily ) that modulate dopamine neurotransmission play a critical role in regulating libido.
Other neurotransmitters, neuropeptides, and sex hormones that affect sex drive by modulating activity in or acting upon this pathway include:
(directly correlated) – and other
(directly correlated) – and related female sex hormones
(inversely correlated)
(directly correlated)
(inversely correlated)
A woman's desire for sex is correlated to her , with many women experiencing a heightened sexual desire in the several days immediately before , which is her peak fertility period, which normally occurs two days before until two days after the ovulation. This cycle has been associated with changes in a woman's
levels during the menstrual cycle. According to Gabrielle Lichterman, testosterone levels have a direct impact on a woman's interest in sex. According to her, testosterone levels rise gradually from about the 24th day of a woman's menstrual cycle until ovulation on about the 14th day of the next cycle, and during this period the woman's desire for sex increases consistently. The 13th day is generally the day with the highest testosterone levels. In the week following ovulation, the testosterone level is the lowest and as a result women will experience less interest in sex.[]
Also, during the week following ovulation,
levels increase, resulting in a woman experiencing difficulty achieving . Although the last days of the menstrual cycle are marked by a constant testosterone level, women's libido may boost as a result of the thickening of the
which stimulates
and makes a woman feel aroused. Also, during these days,
levels also decline, resulting in a decrease of .
Although some specialists disagree with this theory,
is still considered by the majority a factor that can cause decreased sex desire in women. The levels of
decrease at menopause and this usually causes a lower interest in sex and vaginal dryness which makes intercourse painful. However, the levels of
increase at menopause and this may be why some women may experience a contrary effect of an increased libido.[]
Certain psychological or social factors can reduce the desire for sex. These factors can include lack of privacy or ,
or , distraction or depression. Environmental stress, such as prolonged exposure to
or , can also affect libido. Other causes include experience of sexual abuse, assault, trauma, or neglect, body image issues and anxiety about engaging in sexual activity.
Physical factors that can affect libido include
issues such as , the effect of certain prescription medications (for example ), and the attractiveness and biological fitness of one's partner, among various other lifestyle factors.
In males, the frequency of ejaculations affects the levels of serum testosterone, a hormone which promotes libido. A study of 28 males aged 21–45 found that all but one of them had a peak (145.7% of baseline [117.8%–197.3%]) in serum testosterone on the 7th day of abstinence from ejaculation.
is a cause of lack of libido in women due to the loss of
during the period.
, , and the use of certain drugs can also lead to a decreased libido.[] Moreover, specialists suggest that several lifestyle changes such as , , lower consumption of alcohol or using prescription drugs may help increase one's sexual desire.[]
psychostimulants, are a class of drugs which can increase libido. On the other hand, a reduced libido is also often
and can be caused by many medications, such as ,
and other , ,
is one of the hormones controlling libido in human beings. Emerging research is showing that hormonal contraception methods like
(which rely on
together) are causing low libido in females by elevating levels of
(SHBG). SHBG binds to sex hormones, including testosterone, rendering them unavailable. Research is showing that even after ending a hormonal contraceptive method, SHBG levels remain elevated and no reliable data exists to predict when this phenomenon will diminish.
Males reach the peak of their sex drive in their teens, while females reach it in their thirties. The surge in testosterone hits the male at puberty resulting in a sudden and extreme sex drive which reaches its peak at age 15–16, then drops slowly over his lifetime. In contrast, a female's libido increases slowly during adolescence and peaks in her mid-thirties. Actual testosterone and estrogen level affect a person's sex drive vary considerably.
There is no widely accepted measure of what is a healthy level for sex desire. Some people want to have sex every day, or
others once a year or not at all. However, a person who lacks a desire for sexual activity for some period of time may be experiencing a
or may be . A sexual desire disorder is more common in women than in men.[]
can only occur in men and may be because of the lack of sexual desire, however, these two should not be confused. For example, large recreational doses of
can simultaneously cause erectile dysfunction and significantly increase libido. However, men can also experience a decrease in their libido as they age.
has estimated that several million US women suffer from a , though arousal is not at all synonymous with desire, so this finding is of limited relevance to the discussion of libido. Some specialists claim that women may experience low libido due to some hormonal abnormalities such as lack of
or androgenic hormones, although these theories are still controversial. Also, women commonly lack sexual desire in the period immediately after giving . Moreover, any condition affecting the
can make women reject the idea of having . It has been estimated that half of women experience different health problems in the area of the
and , such as thinning, tightening, dryness or .
may appear as a result of these issues and because many of them lead to painful sexual intercourse, many women prefer not having sex at all.
or major health conditions such as , , , ,
may have the same effect in women. Surgery that affects the hormonal levels in women include .
in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Fisher HE, Aron A, Brown LL (December 2006). . Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B, Biol. Sci. 361 (1476): 2173–86. :.  .  . The sex drive evolved to motivate individuals to seek a rang attraction evolved to motivate individuals to prefer and purs and attachment evolved to motivate individuals to remain together long enough to complete species-specific parenting duties. These three behavioural repertoires appear to be based on brain systems that are largely distinct yet interrelated, and they interact in specific ways to orchestrate reproduction, using both hormones and monoamines. ... Animal studies indicate that elevated activity of dopaminergic pathways can stimulate a cascade of reactions, including the release of testosterone and oestrogen (Wenkstern et al. 1993; Kawashima &Takagi 1994; Ferrari & Giuliana 1995; Hull et al. , 2002; Szezypka et al. 1998; Wersinger & Rissman 2000). Likewise, increasing levels of testosterone and oestrogen promote dopamine release ...This positive relationship between elevated activity of central dopamine, elevated sex steroids and elevated sexual arousal and sexual performance (Herbert 1996; Fiorino et al. 1997; Liu et al. 1998; Pfaff 2005) also occurs in humans (Walker et al. 1993; Clayton et al. 2000; Heaton 2000). ... This parental attachment system has been associated with the activity of the neuropeptides, oxytocin (OT) in the nucleus accumbens and arginine vasopressin (AVP) in the ventral pallidum ... The activities of central oxytocin and vasopressin have been associated with both partner preference and attachment behaviours, while dopaminergic pathways have been associated more specifically with partner preference.
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Sigmund Freud, New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis (PFL 2) p. 131
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Reber, Arthur S.; Reber, Emily S. (2001). Dictionary of Psychology. New York: Penguin Reference.  .
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How to modify styles in Microsoft Word
How to modify a style
Word 2002 and Word 2003: Format & Styles and Formatting. Right-click your style. Choose Modify.
Other versions of Word: Format & Style. Click Modify.
Word has dozens of built-in styles. But the pre-set formatting may not suit your needs. For example, in Word 2002 and Word 2003, Word's default Body Text is Times New Roman, 12pt. In Word 2007 and Word 2010 it's 11pt Calibri. Perhaps you'd rather it was 11pt Century Schoolbook, or 10pt Lucida Sans.
You can modify any of Word's built-in styles. This page describes two different methods for modifying paragraph or character styles:
modify a style using a dialog box
modify a style by example.
In either case, you'll need to know what version of Word you have. If you're not sure, see
Use a dialog box to modify a style (Method 1)
Open the Modify Style dialog
If you're using Word 95, 97 or 2000:
From the main menu, Format & Style.
In the Styles list, choose the style you want to Modify. If you can't find the style you want to modify, in the Category box, choose &All Styles&. (Tip: You can see a description of the style below the Preview.)
Click Modify. You're now at the Modify Style dialog.
If you're using Microsoft Word 2002 or Word 2003:
From the main menu, Format & Styles and Formatting.
In the panel, find the style you want to Modify. (Note: If you don't see the style listed, under Show, choose All Styles. If you still don't see your style listed, under Show, click Custom, tick your style and click OK. Then, choose All Styles.)
Right-click on the style name and choose Modify. You're now at the Modify Style dialog.
If you're using Microsoft Word 2007 or Word 2010:
If you're a keyboard junkie: do ctrl-Shift-S. That opens the Apply Styles pane. Use the drop down list to select a style or type the style name into the box. Tab to the Modify button and press Enter. You're now at the Modify Style dialog.
If you're a mouse user: on the Home tab, in the Styles gallery, right-click the thumbnail for the style you want to modify and choose Modify. You're now at the Modify Style dialog.
If you could not find your style that way, then you need the Styles pane. Press Alt-Ctrl-Shift-S to open the Styles pane. Or, click the dialog launcher (the little tiny arrow) at the far bottom right of the Styles group. That pops open the Styles pane. At the bottom of the Styles pane, click Options and choose to show All styles. Back in the Styles pane, find your style in the list, right-click and choose Modify. (Yes, Virginia: Microsoft adds more built-in styles to every version of Word. And with every version, makes it harder to find them!)
Modify your style
Automatically update?
If Automatically Update is ticked, un-tick it. There is not enough aspirin on the planet to cure all the headaches this causes when it is ticked!
From the Modify Style dialog you can change:
The base style for your style (which controls how styles ).
The style to use for the following paragraph. (For example, perhaps you frequently type a paragraph using the Title style, and you follow it with a paragraph in style Subtitle. You can modify the style Title to be followed by style Subtitle.)
If you tick Add to template, your change will be saved in the template on which this document is based.
In the Modify Style dialog, click Format. Choose one of the characteristics of the style to modify: Font, Paragraph etc.
Make your changes and click OK, OK and either Apply or Close.
Modify a style by example (Method 2)
This method of modifying a style does not use the Modify Style dialog box. Instead, you make the changes right in your text, then tell Word to update the style to reflect those changes.
Ensure that you have ticked the box at Tools & Options & Edit & Prompt to Update Style.
Put your cursor in a paragraph of the style you want to modify. So if you want to modify the style Body Text, put your cursor in a paragraph of Body Text style.
Use Format & Font, Format & Paragraph, Format & Borders and Shading
etc to make the required changes.
If you're modifying a paragraph style, click within the paragraph (so no text is selected) or, select the whole paragraph (triple-click to select the whole paragraph). If you're modifying a character style, select one or more characters in that character style.
From the &Styles& box on the Formatting toolbar, re-choose the name of the style. Word will ask if you want to update the style, or reapply the current style to the selected text, as shown in Figure&1. If you want to say sane, do not tick the Automatically Update Style box.
Figure 1: If you want to stay sane, do not tick the Automatically Update Style box.
Note: Word's help just says to &reapply the style&. There are many ways to . The only ways to make Word ask if you want to re-define the style are either to choose from the Styles box or (in Word 2002 and Word 2003 only) to use the Format & Styles and Formatting pane.
A note on modifying styles and their numbering
You can modify the numbering or bullets of your style by using this &by example& method. However, be very careful! When you get to the Bullets and Numbering dialog that shows 8 example numbering schemes, always choose the one that is already highlighted. The other suggestions about
also apply to modifying numbering by example.
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