From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
SAP HANA is an , ,
developed and marketed by . Its primary function as a
is to store and retrieve data as requested by the applications. In addition, it performs advanced analytics (, , text analytics, text search, , ) and includes
capabilities as well as an .
During the early development of SAP HANA, a number of technologies were developed or acquired by . These included
( ), P*TIME (in-memory
Platform acquired by SAP in 2005), and
with its in-memory liveCache engine. The first major demonstration of the platform was in 2008: teams from , the
demonstrated an application architecture for real-time analytics and aggregation. Former SAP SE executive, , mentioned this architecture as "Hasso's New Architecture". Before the name "HANA" stabilized, people referred to this product as "New Database". The software was previously called "SAP High-Performance Analytic Appliance".
The first product shipped in late November 2010. By mid-2011, the technology had attracted interest but more experienced business customers considered it to be "in early days". HANA support for
was announced in September 2011 for availability by November.
In 2012, SAP promoted aspects of . In October 2012, SAP announced a
offering called the
and a variant called SAP HANA One that used a smaller amount of memory.
In May 2013, a
offering called the HANA Enterprise Cloud service was announced.
In May 2013, Business Suite on HANA became available, enabling customers to run
functions on the HANA platform.
, released in 2015, written specifically for the HANA platform, combines functionality for , ,
and others into a single HANA system. S/4HANA is intended to be a simplified business suite, replacing earlier generation
systems. While it is likely that SAP will focus its innovations on S/4HANA, some customers using non-HANA systems have raised concerns of being locked into SAP products. Since S/4HANA requires an SAP HANA system to run, customers running SAP business suite applications on hardware not certified by SAP would need to migrate to a SAP-certified HANA database should they choose the features offered by S/4HANA.
Rather than , the software utilizes , referred to as Support Package Stacks (SPS), for updates. Support Package Stacks are released every 6 months.
In November 2016 SAP announced SAP HANA 2, which offers enhancements to multiple areas such as database management and application management and includes two new cloud services: Text Analysis and Earth Observation Analysis. HANA customers can upgrade to HANA 2 from SPS10 and above. Customers running SPS9 and below must first upgrade to SPS12 before upgrading to HANA 2 SPS01.
The key distinctions between HANA and previous generation SAP systems are that it is a , , that combines
operations
thus in general SAP HANA is an OLTAP system. Storing data in
rather than on
provides faster data access and, by extension, faster querying and processing. While storing data in-memory confers performance advantages, it is a more costly form of data storage. Observing data access patterns, up to 85% of data in an enterprise system may be infrequently accessed therefore it can be cost-effective to store frequently accessed, or "hot", data in-memory while the less frequently accessed "warm" data is stored on disk, an approach SAP have termed "Dynamic tiering".
store all data for a single column in the same location, rather than storing all data for a single row in the same location (row-oriented systems). This can enable performance improvements for
queries on large datasets and allows greater
of similar types of data in a single column. If the read times for column-stored data is fast enough, consolidated views of the data can be performed , removing the need for maintaining
and its associated .
Although row-oriented systems have traditionally been favored for , in-memory storage opens techniques to develop hybrid systems suitable for both
capabilities, removing the need to maintain separate systems for OLTP and OLAP operations.
Indexer components
The index server performs session management, authorization, transaction management and command processing. The database has both a row store and a columnar store. Users can create tables using either store, but the columnar store has more capabilities and is most frequently used.[] The index server also manages persistence between cached memory images of database objects, log files and permanent storage files. The XS engine allows web applications to be built.
SAP HANA Information Modeling (also known as SAP HANA Data Modeling) is a part of HANA application development. Modeling is the methodology to expose operational data to the end user. Reusable virtual objects (named calculation views) are used in the modelling process.
SAP HANA manages
through the use of
(MVCC), which gives every transaction a snapshot of the database at a point in time. When an MVCC database needs to update an item of data, it will not overwrite the old data with new data, but will instead mark the old data as obsolete and add the newer version.
is available via a tool named Smart Data Access. , for example from
devices, is available via a tool named Smart Data Streaming. Dedicated streaming analytics, (predictive analytics) can be employed against data ingested by Smart Data Streaming.
environment, HANA can support volumes of up to a petabyte of data in-memory while returning query results in under a second. In order to balance the tradeoff of the cost of large in-memory systems (notably, the cost of RAM versus solid state or disk-based hard drives) with performance, HANA has capabilities to manage data tiering, i.e. offloading less frequently-accessed data to disk-based storage. HANA’s Data Lifecycle Management is a data administration feature that allows database administrators to define rules for when records in a table should be offloaded from memory to either a disk-based column store on the same HANA server, i.e. “warm data” storage, or to offload data from memory or disk to a separate Hadoop server, i.e. “cold” data storage.
SAP offers a separate but related product referred to as Vora for tight integration of big data stored in
with enterprise data in HANA. Vora leverages some of the same concepts from HANA, namely, in-memory storage, query pushdown, and massive parallelization.
SAP HANA includes a number of analytic engines for various kinds of data processing. The Business Function Library includes a number of algorithms made available to address common business data processing algorithms such as asset ,
and . The Predictive Analytics Library includes native algorithms for calculating common statistical measures in areas such as ,
HANA incorporates the open source statistical programming language
as a supported language within .
The column-store database offers
capabilities. The graph engine supports the
as well as a visual graph manipulation via a tool called Graph Viewer. Graph data structures are stored directly in relational tables in HANA’s column store. Pre-built algorithms in the graph engine include pattern matching, neighborhood search, single shortest path, and strongly connected components. Use cases for the Graph Engine include things like supply chain traceability, fraud detection, and logistics and route planning.
HANA also includes a
engine which supports spatial data types and SQL extensions for
operations on spatial data. HANA is certified by the . and integrates with
In addition to numerical and statistical algorithms, HANA can perform text analytics and enterprise text search. HANA’s search capability is based on “fuzzy” fault-tolerant search, much like modern web-based search engines. Results include a statistical measure for how relevant search results are, and search criteria can include a threshold of accuracy for results. Analyses available include identifying entities such as people, dates, places, organizations, requests, problems, and more. Such entity extraction can be catered to specific use cases such as
(customer’s preferences and expectations), Enterprise (i.e. mergers an acquisitions, products, organizations), and Public Sector (public persons, events, organizations). Custom extraction and dictionaries can also be implemented.
Besides the database and data analytics capabilities, SAP HANA is a , hosting user-facing applications tightly integrated with the database and analytics engines of HANA. The "XS Advanced Engine" (XSA) natively supports
languages and runtimes. XSA is based on
architecture and thus supports the notion of “Bring Your Own Language”, allowing developers to develop and deploy applications written in languages and in runtimes other than those natively supported within XSA, as well as deploying applications as . XSA also supports
Supporting the application server is a suite of application lifecycle management tools allowing development deployment and monitoring of user-facing applications.
HANA can be deployed
from a number of .
HANA can be deployed on-premise as a new appliance from a certified hardware vendor. Alternatively, existing hardware components such as storage and network can be used as part of the implementation, an approach which SAP calls "Tailored Data Center Integration (TDI)". HANA is certified to run on multiple
and . Supported hardware platforms for on-premise deployment include
and . The system is designed to support both .
Multiple cloud providers offer SAP HANA on an
basis, including:
SAP also offer their own cloud services in the form of:
SAP HANA Enterprise Cloud, a
(previously known as HANA Cloud Platform),
SAP HANA licensing is primarily divided into two categories.
Runtime License:
Used to run SAP applications such as SAP Business Warehouse powered by SAP HANA and .
Full Use License:
Used to run both SAP and non-SAP applications. This licensing can be used to create custom applications.
As part of the full use license, features are grouped as editions targeting various use cases.
Base Edition: Provides core database features and development tools but does not support SAP applications.
Platform Edition: Base edition plus spatial, predictive, R server integration, search, text, analytics, graph engines and additional packaged business libraries.
Enterprise Edition: Platform edition plus additional bundled components for some of the data loading capabilities and the rule framework.
In addition, capabilities such as streaming and ETL are licensed as additional options.
As of March 9, 2017, SAP HANA is available in an E a streamlined version which can run on laptops and other resource-limited environments. This edition is primarily aimed at students, and is free to use for in-memory databases of up to 32GB.
Jeff Kelly (July 12, 2013). . Wikibon 2013.
(December 8, 2012)
Vey, G Krutov, Ilya (January 2012).
(PDF). Archived from
(PDF) on June 7, 2014.
SAP SE (June 17, 2012). . SlideShare 2013.
. Gucons web site. .
Jaikumar Vijayan (December 1, 2010). . Computerworld 2018.
Chris Kanaracus (December 1, 2010). . Info World 2013.
Chris Kanaracus (September 15, 2011). . Network World 2013.
Courtney Bjorlin (November 9, 2011). . ASUG News 2013.
Trevis Team (April 30, 2012). . Forbes 2013.
. Database Trends and Applications. October 24, .
. hcp.sap.com 2016.
Doug Henschen (October 17, 2012). . InformationWeek.
from the original on October 19, .
. hana.sap.com 2016.
Brian McKenna (January 11, 2013). . Computer Weekly 2013.
. Computer Weekly. May 15, .
(PDF) 2017.
(PDF) 2017.
. SAP Hana Blog. December .
. SAP Help Portal 2018.
(PDF). Bulletin of the IEEE Computer Society Technical Committee on Data Engineering. n.d 2018.
(PDF) 2017.
. global.sap.com 2016.
. help.sap.com 2016.
. huawei 2016.
. www8.hp.com 2016.
. bluefinsolutions.com 2016.
. help.sap.com 2016.
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This article lists notable military accidents involving nuclear material. Civilian accidents are listed at . For a general discussion of both civilian and military accidents, see .
In listing military nuclear accidents, the following criteria have been adopted:
There must be well-attested and substantial health damage, property damage or contamination.
The damage must be related directly to radioactive material, not merely (for example) at a nuclear power plant.
To qualify as "military", the nuclear operation/material must be principally for military purposes.
To qualify as "accident", the damage should not be intentional, unlike in .
June 23, 1942 –
(then ) – Steam explosion and reactor fire
Shortly after the Leipzig L-IV —worked on by
and —demonstrated Germany's first signs of neutron propagation, the device was checked for a possible
leak. During the inspection, air leaked in, igniting the uranium powder inside. The burning uranium boiled the water jacket, generating enough steam pressure to blow the reactor apart. Burning uranium powder scattered throughout the lab causing a larger fire at the facility.
A sketch of 's
used to determine exposure of those in the room at the time.
August 21, 1945 – , ,
– Accidental criticality
brick onto a
core, inadvertently creating a
at the Los Alamos Omega site. He quickly removed the brick, but was fatally , dying September 15.
May 21, 1946 – , Los Alamos, , United States – Accidental criticality
While demonstrating his technique to visiting scientists at Los Alamos, Canadian
manually assembled a
of . A momentary slip of a screwdriver caused a
reaction. Slotin died on May 30 from massive radiation poisoning, with an estimated dose of 1,000
(rad), or 10
(Gy). Seven observers, who received doses as high as 166 rads, survived, yet three died within a few decades from conditions believed to be radiation-related.
In the above incidents, both Daghlian (August 21, 1945 case) and Slotin (May 21, 1946 case), were working with the same bomb core which became known as the "." It was later melted down and combined with existing weapons-grade material.
February 13, 1950 –
– A simulated nuclear bomb containing TNT and uranium but without the plutonium needed to create a nuclear explosion, was proactively dumped in the Pacific Ocean after a
bomber's engines caught fire during a test of its ability to carry nuclear payloads.The crew reported releasing the weapon out of concern for the amount of TNT inside, alone, before they ejected from the aircraft. The bomber eventually crashed at an unknown location in Canada and four years later the wreckage was found and searched, but no bomb was found. The weapon was briefly thought to have been located by civilian diver in 2016 near
but this was subsequently found not to be the case.
, , was flying a simulated combat mission from , near , , to
in , , carrying one weapon containing a dummy warhead. The warhead contained conventional explosives and natural uranium but lacked the plutonium
of an actual weapon. After six hours of flight, the bomber experienced mechanical problems and was forced to shut down three of its six engines at an altitude of 12,000 feet (3,700 m). Fearing that severe weather and icing would jeopardize a safe emergency landing, the weapon was jettisoned over the Pacific Ocean from a height of 8,000 ft (2,400 m). The weapon's
detonated upon impact with a bright flash visible. All of the sixteen crew members and one passenger were able to parachute from the plane and twelve were subsequently rescued from .
April 11, 1950 – , USA – Loss and recovery of nuclear materials
Three minutes after departure from
in Albuquerque a USAF
carrying a nuclear weapon, four spare detonators, and a crew of thirteen crashed into a mountain near . The crash resulted in a fire that
reported as being visible from 15 miles (24 km). The bomb's casing was demolished and its high explosives ignited upon contact with the plane's burning fuel. However, according to the , the four spare detonators and all nuclear components were recovered. A nuclear detonation was not possible because, while on board, the weapon's
was not in the weapon for safety reasons. All thirteen crew members died.
July 13, 1950 – , , USA – Non-nuclear detonation of an atomic bomb
aircraft on a training mission from
with a nuclear weapon flew into the ground resulting in a high-explosive detonation, but no nuclear explosion.
August 5, 1950 – , , USA – Non-nuclear detonation of an atomic bomb
on board, flying to
experienced malfunctions with two propellers and with landing gear retraction during take-off and crashed while attempting an emergency landing at Fairfield Suisun-AFB. In the resulting fire, the bomb's high-explosive material exploded, killing nineteen people from the crew and rescue personnel.
, command pilot of the bomber, was among the dead.
November 10, 1950 – , , Canada – Non-nuclear detonation of an atomic bomb
Returning one of several U.S.
secretly deployed in Canada, a USAF
at 10,500 feet (3,200 m). The crew set the bomb to self-destruct at 2,500 ft (760 m) and dropped over the . The explosion shook area residents and scattered nearly 100 pounds (45 kg) of uranium (U-238) used in the weapon's tamper. The plutonium
was not in the bomb at the time.
fallout pattern.
March 1, 1954 – ,
(then ) – Nuclear test accident
During the
of the first deployable , a miscalculation resulted in the explosion being over twice as large as predicted, with a total explosive force of 15
(63 ). Of the total yield, 10  (42 PJ) were from fission of the natural uranium tamper, but those fission reactions were quite , producing a large amount of . Combined with the much larger than expected yield and an unanticipated wind shift,
fallout spread into unexpected areas. A Japanese , the , came into contact with the fallout, which caused many of the crew to become ill, with one fatality. The fallout spread eastward onto the inhabited
and . These islands were not evacuated before the explosion due to the unanticipated fallout zone and the financial cost involved, but many of the
natives have since suffered from radiation burns and radioactive
and also similar fates as the Japanese fishermen and have received little, if any, compensation from the . The test resulted in an international uproar and reignited Japanese concerns about radiation, especially with regard to the possible
of fish. Personal accounts of the Rongelap people can be seen in the documentary Children of Armageddon.
November 29, 1955 – , USA – Partial meltdown
Operator error led to a partial
in the experimental
, resulting in temporarily elevated radioactivity levels in the reactor building and necessitating significant repair.
March 10, 1956 – Over the
– Nuclear weapons lost
A USAF , , on a non-stop mission from , , to an overseas base descended into a cloud formation at 14,000 feet over the Mediterranean in preparation for an in-air refueling and vanished while carrying two nuclear weapon . The plane was lost while flying through dense clouds, and the cores and other wreckage were never located.
July 27, 1956 –
– Nuclear weapons damaged
crashed into a
spreading burning fuel over three
at . A bomb disposal expert stated it was a miracle exposed detonators on one bomb did not fire, which presumably would have released nuclear material into the environment.
May 22, 1957 –
in , USA – Non-nuclear detonation of a
thermonuclear bomb
A B-36 ferrying a nuclear weapon from
dropped a nuclear weapon on approach to Kirtland. The weapon struck the ground 4.5 miles south of the Kirtland control tower and 0.3 miles west of the Sandia Base reservation. The weapon was completely destroyed by the detonation of its high explosive material, creating a crater 12 feet (3.7 m) deep and 25 feet (7.62 m) in diameter. Radioactive contamination at the crater lip amounted to 0.5 .
July 28, 1957 –
– Two weapons jettisoned and not recovered
aircraft from , Delaware was carrying three nuclear bombs over the Atlantic Ocean when it experienced a loss of power. For their own safety, the crew jettisoned two nuclear bombs, which were never recovered.
September 11, 1957 – , , , USA – Fire, release of nuclear materials
A fire began in a theoretically fireproof area inside the
processing building, in a
used to handle radioactive materials, igniting the combustible rubber gloves and
windows of the box. The fire quickly spread to the plutonium as various safety features failed. The fire spread through the ventilation system as the containment ability of the facility became compromised, with plumes of radioactive smoke sent high into the outside air. The fire raged inside the building for 13 hours over the night of the 11th & 12th before firefighters could finally extinguish it. In the aftermath, Department of Energy officials, and the Dow Chemical officials who ran the facility, did not admit the extent of the catastrophe, or the radiation danger, to local officials or the media. Knowledge of the extent of the damage and contamination was kept from the public for years. After the fire, plutonium was detected near a school 12 miles (19 km) away and around
17 miles (27 km) away. An independent group of scientists conducting off-site testing 13 years later found plutonium contamination in areas in nearby Rocky Flats to be 400 to 1,500 times higher than normal, higher than any ever recorded near any urban area, including . The Atomic Energy Commission then conducted its own off-site study, and that study confirmed plutonium contamination as far as 30 miles (48 km) from the plant.
September 29, 1957 – , ,
(then , ) – Explosion, release of nuclear materials
nuclear processing plant resulted in a major explosion and release of radioactive materials. A large area was subjected to
and thousands of local inhabitants were evacuated.
October 8–12, 1957 – , , UK – Reactor core fire
See . Technicians mistakenly overheated Windscale
No. 1 during an
process to release
portions of the reactor. Poorly placed temperature sensors indicated the reactor was cooling rather than heating. The excess heat led to the failure of a nuclear cartridge, which in turn allowed uranium and irradiated graphite to react with air. The resulting fire burned for days, damaging a significant portion of the reactor core. About 150 burning fuel cells could not be lifted from the core, but operators succeeded in creating a
by removing nearby fuel cells. An effort to cool the graphite core with water eventually quenched the fire. The reactor had released radioactive gases into the surrounding countryside, primarily in the form of
distribution was banned in a 200-square-mile (520 km2) area around the reactor for several weeks. A 1987 report by the National Radiological Protection Board predicted the accident would cause as many as 33 long-term cancer deaths, although the Medical Research Council Committee concluded that "it is in the highest degree unlikely that any harm has been done to the health of anybody, whether a worker in the Windscale plant or a member of the general public." The reactor that burned was one of two air-cooled, graphite-moderated natural uranium reactors at the site used for production of .
October 11, 1957 – , Florida – Nuclear bomb burned after B-47 aircraft accident
B-47 aircraft crashed during take-off af one nuclear bomb burned in the resulting fire.
January 31, 1958 –
– Nuclear bomb damaged in crash
During a simulated takeoff, a wheel casting failure caused the tail of a
B-47 carrying an armed nuclear weapon to hit the runway, rupturing a fuel tank and sparking a fire. Some contamination was detected immediately following the accident.
February 5, 1958 – , , USA – Nuclear bomb lost
See . A USAF B-47 bomber jettisoned a
over the Atlantic Ocean after a
with a USAF
during a simulated combat mission from , Florida. The F-86's pilot
to safety. The USAF claimed the B-47 tried landing at , Georgia three times before the bomb was jettisoned at 7,200 ft (2,200 m) near , . The B-47 pilot successfully landed in one attempt only after he first jettisoned the bomb. A 3-square-mile (7.8 km2) area near
was searched for nine weeks before the search was called off.
March 11, 1958 – , USA – Non-nuclear detonation of a nuclear bomb
A USAF B-47E bomber, number 53-1876A, was flying from
in , , to England in a formation of four B-47s on a top-secret mission called Operation Snow Flurry to perform a mock bombing exercise. The flight navigator/bombardier was checking the locking harness on the massive (7,600 pounds (3,447 kg))
when he accidentally pushed the emergency release lever. The bomb fell on the bomb-bay doors, smashing them open and going into a 15,000 feet (4,572 m) free fall. The high-explosive detonator went off after it hit the ground 6.5
of , in , creating a 70 feet (21 m) wide crater, 30 feet (9 m) deep. A nearby house was destroyed and several people were injured.:136–137 A nuclear detonation was not possible because, while on board, the weapon's
was not in the weapon for safety reasons.
June 16, 1958 – , USA – Accidental criticality
A supercritical portion of highly enriched
was allowed to collect in the drum causing a
in the C-1 wing of building 9212 at the
complex. It is estimated that the reaction produced 1.3 × 1018 fissions. Eight employees were in close proximity to the drum during the accident, receiving
doses ranging from 30 to 477 . No fatalities were reported.
November 4, 1958 – , Texas, USA – Non-nuclear detonation of a nuclear bomb
A USAF B-47 bomber developed a fire shortly after take-off and went down with a nuclear weapon on board from an altitude of 1,500 ft (460 m). The detonation of the high explosive material in the bomb created a crater 6 feet (1.8 m) deep and 35 feet (10.7 m) in diameter. Three crew members escaped, and one was killed.
November 26, 1958 – , , USA – Non-nuclear detonation of a nuclear bomb
A USAF B-47 bomber with a nuclear weapon on board developed a fire while on the ground. The aircraft wreckage and the site of the accident were contaminated after a limited explosion of non-nuclear material.
December 30, 1958 – , USA – Accidental criticality
During chemical purification, a
of a plutonium solution was accidentally assembled at . A chemical operator named
died of . The March 1961
printed a special supplement medically analyzing this accident. Hand manipulation of critical assemblies was abandoned as a matter of policy in U.S. federal facilities after this accident.
January 18, 1959 – classified USAF air base somewhere in the Pacific – Nuclear weapon on fire
A parked USAF , loaded with a nuclear weapon, developed a fire on one of the USAF Pacific bases after its external fuel tanks were dropped and exploded during a practice alert. The resulting fire was put out in seven minutes and there was no nuclear weapon explosion.
July 6, 1959, – , Louisiana, USA – Limited contamination
transporting two nuclear weapons without fissile
crashed and burned down during take-off. The high explosive
did not go off. The wreckage area experienced limited contamination.
September 25, 1959, – Off , Washington, USA – Lost nuclear weapon
A U.S. Navy
aircraft with an unarmed
near , . The nuclear weapon was not recovered.
October 15, 1959, – , USA – Nuclear weapon partially damaged
After both planes took off from
in , a USAF
(No. 57-036), with two nuclear weapons
at 32,000 feet (9,754 m) with a
(No. 57-1513), during a
near Hardinsburg, Kentucky. Both planes crashed killing eight crew members. One unarmed nuclear weapon was partially damaged, but no contamination resulted.
November 20, 1959 – , USA – Explosion
occurred during
of processing machinery in the radiochemical processing plant at
. (Report ORNL-2989, Oak Ridge National Laboratory). The accident resulted in the release of about 15
(0.53 ) of .
June 7, 1960 – , USA – Nuclear warhead damaged by fire
tank exploded and ruptured the fuel tanks of a USAF
at , . The fire destroyed the missile, and contaminated the area directly below and adjacent to the missile.
October 13, 1960 – , Arctic Ocean – Release of nuclear materials
A leak developed in the
and in a pipe leading to the compensator reception on the ill-fated
was on . While the crew
and three of the crew suffered visible radiation injuries according to radiological experts in Moscow. Some crew members had been exposed to doses of up to 1.8–2
(180–200 rem).
reactor being removed from the .
January 3, 1961 – , , USA – Accidental criticality, steam explosion, 3 fatalities, release of fission products
During a maintenance shutdown, the
experimental nuclear reactor underwent a
reaction causing core materials to explosively vaporize.
estimated at 10,000 pounds per square inch (69,000 kPa) struck the top of the reactor vessel propelling the entire reactor vessel upwards over 9 feet (2.7 m) in the air. One operator who had been standing on top of the vessel was killed when a shield plug impaled him and lodged in the ceiling. Two other military personnel were also killed from the trauma of the explosion, one of which had removed the central control rod too far. The plant had to be dismantled and the contamination was buried permanently nearby. Most of the release of radioactive materials was concentrated within the reactor building.
January 24, 1961 –
– Physical destruction of a nuclear bomb, loss of nuclear materials
caught fire and exploded in midair due to a major leak in a wing fuel cell 12 miles (19 km) north of , . Five crewmen
to safety, but three others died—two in the aircraft and one on landing. The incident released the bomber's two
. Three of the four arming devices on one of the bombs activated, causing it to carry out many of the steps needed to arm itself, such as the charging of the firing
and, critically, the deployment of a 100-foot (30 m) diameter
. The parachute allowed the bomb to hit the ground with little damage. The fourth arming device—the pilot's safe/arm switch—was not activated, preventing detonation. The second bomb plunged into a muddy field at around 700 mph (300 m/s) and disintegrated. Its tail was discovered about 20 feet (6 m) down and much of the bomb recovered, including the
bottle and the . However, excavation was abandoned due to uncontrollable ground water flooding. Most of the
stage, containing , was left on site. It is estimated to lie around 55 feet (17 m) below ground. The
purchased the land and fenced it off to prevent its disturbance, and it is tested regularly for contamination, although none has so far been found.
March 14, 1961 –
departed , California and experienced a
that required it to fly below 10,000 feet. Resulting increased fuel consumption le the aircraft crashed near
with two nuclear bombs, which did not trigger a nuclear explosion.
July 4, 1961 – coast of Norway – Near meltdown
suffered a failure in its cooling system. Reactor core temperatures reached 800 °C (1,500 °F), nearly enough to melt the fuel rods, although the crew was able to regain temperature control by using emergency procedures. The incident contaminated parts of the ship, some of the onboard ballistic missiles and the crew, resulting in several fatalities. The film , starring
and , offers a controversially fictionalized story of these events.
May 1, 1962 – ,
(now ) – Accidental venting of underground nuclear test
The second French underground nuclear test, codenamed , took place in a shaft under Mount Taourirt, near , 150 km (100 mi) north of ,
. Due to improper sealing of the shaft, a spectacular flame burst through the concrete cap and radioactive gases and dust were vented into the atmosphere. The plume climbed up to ;m (;ft) high and radiation was detected hundreds of kilometers away. About a hundred soldiers and officials, including two ministers, were irradiated. The number of contaminated Algerians is unknown.
May 22, 1962 – , USA – Explosion of Titan I ICBM in silo in Chico, California.
Titan I ICBM explodes in its silo in Chico, California. During a contractor checkout, a leak and subsequent explosion occurred at launcher 1 at complex 4C at Chico, destroying a Titan I and causing heavy damage to the silo. The Air Force concluded that the two separate explosions occurred because of a blocked vent and blocked valve. All contractors and crew of the silo escaped unharmed.
April 10, 1963 – Loss of nuclear reactor
sinks about 190 nmi (220  350 km) east of ,
due to improper welds allowing in seawater which forced a shutdown of the reactor. Poor design of its emergency blow system prevented the ship from surfacing and the disabled ship ultimately descended to
and , killing all 129 on board.
January 13, 1964 –
and , USA – Accidental loss and recovery of thermonuclear bombs
A USAF B-52 on airborne alert duty encountered a severe winter storm and extreme turbulence, ultimately disintegrating in midair over South Central Pennsylvania. Only the two pilots survived. One crew member failed to bail out and the rest succumbed to injuries or exposure to the harsh winter weather. A search for the missing weapons was initiated, and recovery was effected from portions of the wreckage at a farm northwest of Frostburg, MD.
5 December 1964 – , , Minuteman ICBM missile warhead separation
Warhead separated in the launch tube due to an electrical short circuit and fell to the bottom of the tube. At launch facility Lima-02 near . The missile site was part of the former
at , South Dakota.
8 December 1964 – , , USA – Fire, radioactive contamination
aircraft carrying a nuclear weapon caught fire while taxiing. Nuclear weapon burned, causing contamination of the crash area.
January 1965 – , USA – Release of nuclear materials
An accident at
released 300 kCi (11 PBq) of
gas. Subsequent study found this release was not likely to produce adverse health effects in the surrounding communities.
February 1965 – , a Soviet nuclear icebreaker, suffered a . After being shut down for refueling, the coolant was removed from the number two reactor before the
had been removed. As a result, some of the fuel elements melted and deformed inside the reactor. This was discovered when the spent elements were being unloaded for storage and disposal. 124 fuel assemblies (about 60% of the total) were stuck in the reactor core. It was decided to remove the fuel, control grid, and
as they were placed in a special cask, solidified, stored for two years, and dumped in Tsivolki Bay, in the
archipelago, in 1967.
11 October 1965 – Rocky Flats Plant, Golden, Colorado, USA – Fire, exposure of workers
A fire at Rocky Flats exposed a crew of 25 to up to 17 times the legal limit for radiation.
December 5, 1965 –
– Loss of a nuclear bomb
A U.S. Navy
aircraft with one
on board fell off the
into 16,200 feet (4,900 m) of water while the ship was underway from
to , Japan. The plane, pilot and weapon were never recovered. There is dispute over exactly where the incident took place—the
originally stated it took place 500 miles (800 km) off the coast of Japan, but
documents later show it happened about 80 miles (130 km) from the
and 200 miles (320 km) from .
January 17, 1966 –
– Accidental destruction, loss and recovery of nuclear bombs
A USAF B-52 carrying four hydrogen bombs collided with a
during over-ocean . Four of the B-52's seven crew members parachuted to safety while the remaining three were killed along with all four of the KC-135's crew. The conventional explosives in two of the bombs detonated upon impact with the ground, dispersing plutonium over nearby farms. A third bomb landed intact near
while the fourth fell 12 miles (19 km) off the coast into the Mediterranean sea. The U.S. Navy conducted a three-month search involving 12,000 men and successfully recovered the fourth bomb. The U.S. Navy employed the use of the deep-diving research submarine
to aid in the recovery efforts. During the ensuing cleanup, 1,500
(1,700 ) of radioactive soil and tomato plants were shipped to a nuclear dump in . The U.S. settled claims by 522 Palomares residents for 600,000. The town also received a $200,000
plant. The motion picture
(2000), starring , as
Diver, Master Chief Petty Officer Carl Brashear, and
as USN Diver, Chief Petty Officer Billy Sunday, contained an account of the fourth bomb's recovery.
1967 – , a Soviet nuclear icebreaker, suffer a cooling system leak which occurred in 1967, shortly after refueling. Finding the leak required breaking through the concrete and metal biological shield with . Once the leak was found, it became apparent that the sledgehammer damage c subsequently, all three reactors were removed, and replaced by two OK-900 reactors, by early 1970.
January 21, 1968 – ,
– Loss and partial recovery of nuclear bombs
A fire broke out in the 's compartment of a USAF
near , . The bomber crashed 7 miles (11 km) from the air base, rupturing its nuclear payload of four hydrogen bombs. The recovery and decontamination effort was complicated by Greenland's harsh weather. Contaminated ice and debris were buried in the United States. Bomb fragments were recycled by , in . The incident caused outrage and protests in Denmark, as Greenland is a Danish possession and Denmark forbade nuclear weapons on its territory.
May 22, 1968 – 740 km (400 nmi) southwest of the
– Loss of nuclear reactor and two
nuclear warheads
sank while en route from , Spain, to , , USA. The cause of sin all 99 officers and men on board were killed. The wreckage of the submarine, its
, and its two
torpedoes with
nuclear warheads, remain on the sea floor in more than 3,000 m (9,800 ft) of water.
May 24, 1968 – location unknown – Loss of cooling, radioactive contamination, nuclear fuel damaged
During sea trials, the Soviet nuclear submarine
(Project 645) suffered severe problems with its reactor cooling systems. After spending some time at reduced power, reactor output inexplicably dropped and sensors detected an increase of
in the reactor compartment to 150 /h. The safety buffer tank released radioactive gases further contaminating the submarine. The crew shut the reactor down and subsequent investigation found that approximately 20% of the fuel assemblies were damaged. The entire submarine was scuttled in the
August 27, 1968 – , Russia (then ) – Reactor power excursion, contamination
While in the naval yards at Severodvinsk for repairs, the Soviet
suffered an uncontrolled increase of the reactor's power output. One of the reactors activated automatically when workers raised control rods to a higher position and power increased to 18 times normal, while pressure and temperature levels in the reactor increased to four times normal. The accident also increased radiation levels aboard the vessel. The problem was traced to the incorrect installation of control rod electrical cables.
May 11, 1969 – Rocky Flats Plant, Golden, Colorado, USA – Plutonium fire, contamination
An accident in which 5  of plutonium burnt inside a
at Rocky Flats. Cleanup took two years and was the costliest industrial accident ever to occur in the United States at that time.
April 12, 1970 –
– Loss of a nuclear submarine
The Soviet
sank during salvage with 52 sailors on board after suffering fires in two compartments simultaneously. Both reactors were shut down. The crew attempted to hook a tow line to an
, but ultimately failed.
Baneberry's radioactive plume rises from a shock fissure. Contaminants were carried in three different directions by the wind.
December 18, 1970 –
– Accidental venting of nuclear explosion
of 1963 was meant to prevent the nuclear fallout freely associated with the earlier above ground tests. Some venting might still happen on site, but the 1970 "Baneberry" test blast – part of
– resulted in extensive off-site fallout. The 10 kiloton "Baneberry" test took place under
on . The weapon detonated as planned at the bottom of a sealed vertical shaft 900 feet (274 m) below the Earth's surface, but the device's energy cracked the soil in unexpected ways, causing a fissure near ground zero and releasing a plume of hot gases and radioactive dust that continued for many hours, raining fallout on workers within NTS. Six percent of the explosion's radioactive products were vented, releasing 6.7 MCi of radioactive material, including 80 kCi of
and a high ratio of noble gases. The hot cloud's lighter particles were carried to three altitudes and conveyed by winter storms and the jet stream to be deposited heavily as -laden snow in
counties in northeast California, and to lesser degrees in northern , southern Idaho and some eastern sections of
and Washington states. The three diverging jet stream layers conducted radionuclides across the U.S. to Canada, the
and the Atlantic Ocean. Some 86 workers at the site were exposed to radioactivity, but according to the , none received a dose exceeding site guidelines and, similarly, radiation drifting offsite was not considered to pose a hazard by the DOE. In March 2009,
magazine identified the Baneberry Test as one of the world's worst nuclear disasters.
December 12, 1971 – , USA – Spill of irradiated water
During the transfer of radioactive coolant water from the submarine
500 US gallons (1,900 l; 420 imp gal) were spilled into the
December 1972 – , USA – Contamination
A major fire and two explosions contaminated the plant and grounds of a plutonium fabrication facility resulting in a permanent shutdown.[]
1975 – location unknown – Contamination
Radioactive resin contaminates the
after wind unexpectedly blows the powder back towards the ship. The resin is used to remove dissolved radioactive minerals and particles from the primary coolant loops of submarines. This type of accide however, U.S. Navy nuclear vessels no longer discharge resin at sea.
October 1975 – ,
– Spill of irradiated water
While disabled, the submarine tender
discharged radioactive coolant water. A
at two of the harbor's public beaches showed 100 /hour, fifty times the allowable dose.
August 1976 – , United States – Explosion, contamination of worker
An explosion at the
Plutonium Finishing Plant blew out a quarter-inch-thick lead glass window. , a worker, was showered with nitric acid and radioactive glass. He inhaled the largest dose of
ever recorded, about 500 times the U.S. government occupational standards. The worker was placed in isolation for five months and given an experimental drug to flush the isotope from his body. By 1977, his body's radiation count had fallen by about 80 percent. He died of natural causes in 1987 at age 75.
1977 – coast of
– Loss and recovery of a nuclear warhead
accidentally released a nuclear warhead. The warhead was recovered after a search involving dozens of ships and aircraft.
January 24, 1978 – , Canada – Spill of nuclear fuel
with an onboard nuclear reactor, failed to separate from its booster and broke up on reentry over Canada. The fuel was spread over a wide area and some radioactive pieces were recovered. The Soviet Union eventually paid the Canadian government $3 million
for expenses relating to the crash.
May 22, 1978 – near , , United States – Spill of irradiated water
A valve was mistakenly opened aboard the submarine
releasing up to 500 US gallons (1,900 l; 420 imp gal) of radioactive water.
September 18, 1980 – , ,
– At about 6:30 p.m., an airman conducting maintenance on a USAF
missile at 's Launch Complex 374-7 in
(), just north of , dropped a 9 pounds (4.1 kg)
from a socket wrench, which fell about 80 feet (24 m) before hitting and piercing the skin on the rocket's first-stage fuel tank, causing it to leak. The area was evacuated. Overnight, at about 3:00 , the
fuel exploded. The
warhead landed about 100 feet (30 m) from the launch complex' its safety features operated correctly and prevented any explosion, chemical or nuclear. An Air Force airman, SrA David Livingston, was killed and the launch complex was destroyed.
February 1982 to December 1989 – The
was associated with leaks in a massive cooling and storage pool. The leaks caused about 700,000 tonnes of highly radioactive water to leak into the Barents Sea during that time period. During the extensive period of attempted repairs and subsequent dismantling of the pool, other incidents occurred on site, including accidental accumulations of critical masses of material releasing radiation and an "industrial accident" that caused two cleanup workers to plunge directly into the radioactive pool.
August 8, 1982 – While on duty in the , there was a release of liquid metal coolant from the reactor of the Soviet Project 705
. The accident was caused by a leak in the steam generator. Approximately two tons of metal alloy leaked into the reactor compartment, irreparably damaging the reactor so it had to be replaced. It took nine years to repair the submarine.
January 3, 1983 – The Soviet nuclear-powered spy satellite
burned up over the South Atlantic.
August 10, 1985 – About 35 miles (56 km) from
suffered a reactor explosion, producing fatally high levels of radiation. Ten men were killed, but the deadly cloud of radioactivity did not reach .
1986 – The U.S. government declassified 19,000 pages of documents indicating that between 1946 and 1986, the
near , released thousands of
of radioactive liquids. Many of the people living in the affected area received low doses of radiation from .
October 3, 1986 – 480 miles (770 km) east of , the Soviet
experienced an explosion in one of its missile tubes and at least three crew members were killed. Sixteen nuclear missiles and two reactors were on board.
privately communicated news of the disaster to
before publicly acknowledging the incident on October 4. Two days later, on October 6, the submarine sank in the Atlantic Ocean while under tow in 18,000 feet (5,500 m) of water.
October 1988 – At the nuclear trigger assembly facility at
in , two employees and a
inspector inhaled radioactive particles, causing closure of the plant. Several safety violations were cited, including uncalibrated monitors, inadequate fire equipment, and groundwater contaminated with radioactivity.
soldiers suffered radiation poisoning and burns. They were eventually traced back to training sources abandoned, forgotten, and unlabeled after the . One was a
pellet in a pocket of a shared jacket which put out about 130,000 times the level of background radiation at 1 meter distance.
August 12, 2000, , the Russian submarine
during a naval exercise. All 118 on board were killed. The nuclear reactor compartment withstood the initial explosions, allowing the two reactors to
and prevent a
and widespread contamination of the sea. Parts of the submarine were later raised and the nuclear reactors were successfully de-fueled.
February 2003:
facility. During the final testing of a new saltless
processing method, there was a small explosion followed by a fire. The explosion occurred in an unvented vessel containing unreacted calcium, water and . An
reaction in the vessel generated enough steam to burst the container. This small explosion breached its , allowing air to enter and ignite some loose uranium powder. Three employees were contaminated. BWXT Y-12 (now B&W Y-12), a partnership of
and , was fined $82,500 for the accident.
(None listed.)
– a comprehensive annotated list of the world's nuclear reactors
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List of nuclear explosions in the world
List of all nuclear accidents in the history (updated)
2 topics, both with a current news feed
with search function and electronic public reading room
with extensive online library
Detailed articles on nuclear watchdog activities in the US
Background on ionizing radiation and doses,
More information on radiation units and doses.
Extensive, well-referenced list of radiological incidents.
A handy (if somewhat chilling) list of close calls.
list published by the Center for Defense Information ()
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