公务员调动该找哪些人-土地公问答
公务员调动该找哪些人
公务员调动该找哪些人
答：必须遵守条件才能得到调动，没有途径可走，排除特殊情况。 具体如下： 调任条件 总 则 第一条 为拓宽选人渠道，优化公务员队伍结构，规范公务员调任工作，根据公务员法和有关法律、法规，制定本规定。 第二条 本规定所称调任，是指国有企业事业...
必须遵守条件才能调没途径走排除特殊情况具体：调任条件总 则第条 拓宽选渠道优化公务员队伍结构规范公务员调任工作根据公务员关律、规制定本规定第二条 本规定所称调任指企业事业单位、民团体群众团体事公务员调入机关担任领导职务或者副调研员及其相职务层非领导职务调任领导员另规定其规定第三条 调任必须坚持德才素质与职位要求相适应原则根据工作需要资格条件坚持组织安排与意愿相结合严掌握择优任用第四条 调任必须规定编制限额职数内进行并相应职位空缺第五条 各级公务员主管部门按照管理权限职责工负责公务员调任工作综合管理监督检查调任资格条件第六条 调任选应具备公务员第十条规定条件应具备列资格条件：（）具良政治、业务素质工作能力强、勤奋敬业、实绩突（二）具与拟调任职位要求相工作经历任职资历（三）具备公务员及其配套规规定晋升至拟任职务累计所需低工作限专业技术员调入机关任职应担任副高级专业技术职务2或者已担任高级专业技术职务（四）调入央机关、省级机关任职应具本科文化程度；调入市（）级机关任职应具专科文化程度（五）调任厅局级职务原则超55周岁；调任县（市）领导班员职务原则超50周岁调任其处级职务原则超45周岁；调任科级领导职务原则超40周岁（六）符合律、规、章程规定其条件工作特殊需要前款第（三）、（四）、（五）项需适调整市（）级机关应按照干部管理权限报级公务员主管部门批准同意省级机关应按照干部管理权限报同级公务员主管部门批准同意第七条 公务员调机关拟再调入机关担任高于调机关所任职务应具备调机关所任职务晋升至拟调任职务所需任职资格限第八条 列情形员调任：（）曾犯罪受刑事处罚；（二）曾除公职；（三）涉嫌违纪违接受关专门机关审查尚未作结论；（四）受处期间或者未满影响期限；（五）接受审计机关审计；（六）律、规规定其情形调任程序第九条 调任按照程序进行：（）根据工作需要确定调任职位及调任条件；（二）提调任选；（三）征求调单位意见；（四）组织考察；（五）集体讨论决定；（六）调任公示；（七）报批或者备案；（八）办理调、任职公务员登记手续第十条 根据调任职位要求调任选通组织推荐式产必要调任选进行考试第十条 调任选应进行严格考察并形书面考察材料考察内容包括调任选德、能、勤、绩、廉等面表现考察应听取调任选所单位关领导、群众干部事部门、纪检监察机构意见所单位应予积极配合并提供客观、真实反映调任选现实表现廉政情况材料第十二条 根据考察情况集体讨论决定拟调任员并按照任前公示制关规定调、调入单位予公示第十三条 公示期满没反映问题或者反映问题影响调任按规定程序进行审批或备案；反映严重问题未经查实待查实并做结论再决定否调任第十四条 按照干部管理权限确定拟调任员调入机关按照规定权限办理审批或者备案省级机关调任公务员须报市（）级公务员主管部门审批呈报审批、备案材料应包括请示、公务员调任审批（备案）表、考察材料、调单位意见纪检监察机构提供廉政情况；按规定需要进行离任审计或者经济责任审计员应其进行审计并提供审计机关审计结论调任员审批、备案办理调手续并按关规定进行公务员登记第十五条 调任员级别关待遇根据其调任职务结合本原任职务、工作经历、文化程度等条件比照调入机关同等条件员确定第十六条 调任员除由家权力机关依任命职务外般实行任职试用期制试用期试用期满考核合格式任职；考核合格另行安排工作纪律与监督第十七条 调任必须遵守列纪律：（）调任审批或者备案机关应严格履行职责认真审核关随意降低标准放宽条件；（二）调入机关应严格履行关程序按照干部管理权限集体讨论决定或者少数说算弄虚作假搞风；（三）调单位应严格执行干部事管理工作关规、政策提供真实情况突击提拔；（四）参加考察员应实反映考察情况意见隐瞒、歪曲事实真相；（五）调任员应遵守关规定接调通知规定期限内办理行政、工资关系等关手续第十八条 调任工作存应避情形按照关规定执行第十九条 违反规定调任事项呈报予批准；已经作决定宣布效并按照规定主要责任及直接责任作组织处理或者处构犯罪依追究刑事责任
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The Indian independence movement encompassed activities and ideas aiming to end the
rule () and the
() in the . The movement spanned a total of 90 years ().
The first organised militant movements were in , but they later took movement in the newly formed
with prominent moderate leaders seeking only their basic right to appear for
examinations, as well as more rights, economic in nature, for the people of the soil. The early part of the 20th century saw a more radical approach towards political self-rule proposed by leaders such as the
and , . The last stages of the self-rule struggle from the 1920s onwards saw Congress adopt 's policy of nonviolence and , and several other campaigns. Nationalists like , ,
preached armed revolution to achieve self-rule. Poets and writers such as , , , , ,
used literature, poetry and speech as a tool for political awareness. Feminists such as
promoted the emancipation of Indian women and their participation in national politics.
championed the cause of the disadvantaged sections of Indian society within the larger self-rule movement. The period of the
saw the peak of the campaigns by the
led by Congress, and the
movement led by .
The Indian self-rule movement was a mass-based movement that encompassed various sections of society. It also underwent a process of constant ideological evolution. Although the basic ideology of the movement was anti-colonial, it was supported by a vision of independent capitalist economic development coupled with a secular, democratic, republican, and
political structure. After the 1930s, the movement took on a strong socialist orientation, owing to the influence of Bhagat Singh's demand of Purn Swaraj (Complete Self-Rule). The work of these various movements led ultimately to the , which ended the suzerainty in India and the creation of . India remained a Dominion of
until 26 January 1950, when the
came into force, Pakistan was a dominion until 1956, when it adopted its . In 1971,
declared independence as the .
Robert Clive with
after the Battle of Plassey
After the defeat of , most of South India was now either under the company's direct rule, or under its indirect political control
European traders first reached Indian shores with the arrival of the
in 1498 at the port of , in search of the lucrative . Just over a century later, the Dutch and English established trading outposts on the subcontinent, with the first English trading post set up at
in 1613. Over the course of the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, the British defeated the Portuguese and Dutch militarily, but remained in conflict with the French, who had by then sought to establish themselves in the subcontinent. The decline of the
in the first half of the eighteenth century provided the British with the opportunity to establish a firm foothold in Indian politics. After the
in 1757, during which the 's
defeated , the , the Company established itself as a major player in Indian affairs, and soon afterwards gained administrative rights over the regions of ,
and Midnapur part of , following the
in 1764. After the defeat of , most of South India came either under the Company's direct rule, or under its indirect political control as part a
in a . The Company subsequently gained control of regions ruled by the , after defeating them in a series of wars.
was annexed in 1849, after the defeat of the Sikh armies in the
(1848–49) Anglo-Sikh Wars.
English was made the medium of instruction in India's schools in 1835, and many Indians increasingly disliked British rule. The English tried to impose the Western standards of education and culture on Indian masses, believing in the 18th century racist notion of the superiority of Western culture and enlightenment.
was one of the opponents of the
rule in . He was in conflict with the
who was supported by the British. His prominent exploits were his confrontations with , who later rebelled against the British in the late 1750s and early 1760s. Nelkatumseval the present Tirunelveli Dist of Tamil Nadu state of India was the headquarters of Puli Thevan.
Syed Mir Nisar Ali T 27 January 1782 – 19 November 1831) was an Islamic preacher who led a peasant uprising against the Hindu zamindars, British India during the 19th century. Along with his followers, he built a bamboo fort (Bansher Kella in Bengali) in Narkelberia Village, which passed into Bengali folk legend. After the storming of the fort by British soldiers, Titumir died of his wounds on 19 November 1831.
Toughest resistance company experienced offered by . The Anglo–Mysore Wars were a series of wars fought in over the last three decades of the 18th century between the
on the one hand, and the British
(represented chiefly by the ), and and the
on the other.
and his successor
fought a war on four fronts with the British attacking from the west, south and east, while the Marathas and the Nizam's forces attacked from the north. The fourth war resulted in the overthrow of the house of Hyder Ali and Tipu (who was killed in the final war, in 1799), and the dismantlement of Mysore to the benefit of the East India Company, which won and took control of much of India.
was one of the earliest freedom fighters in India. He was the prince regent of the princely state of Kottiyur or Cotiote in North Malabar, near Kannur, India between 1774 and 1805. He fought a guerrilla war with tribal people from Wynad supporting him. He was caught by the British and his fort was razed to the ground.
(), was a queen of Indian Sivaganga from 1760 to 1790. She was the first queen to fight against the British in India. Rani Nachiyar was trained in war match weapons usage, martial arts like Valari, Silambam (fighting using stick), horse riding and archery. She was a scholar in many languages and she had proficiency with languages like French, English and Urdu. When her husband, Muthuvaduganathaperiya Udaiyathevar, was killed by British soldiers and the son of the Nawab of Arcot, she was drawn into battle. She formed an army and sought an alliance with Gopala Nayaker and Hyder Ali with the aim of attacking the British, whom she did successfully fight in 1780. When Rani Velu Nachiyar found the place where the British stored their ammunition, she arranged a suicide attack: a faithful follower, , doused herself in oil, set herself alight and walked into the storehouse. Rani Velu Nachiyar formed a woman's army named "udaiyaal" in honour of her adopted daughter, Udaiyaal, who died detonating a British arsenal. Rani Nachiyar was one of the few rulers who regained her kingdom, and ruled it for ten more years.
was an eighteenth-century
and chieftain from
who waged a
against the . He was captured by the British and hanged in 1799 CE. Kattabomman refused to accept the sovereignty of East India Company, and fought against them.
chieftain and
from Tamil Nadu who fought against the East India Company. After
and 's deaths, Chinnamalai sought the help of
to attack the British at
in 1800. British forces managed to stop the armies of the allies and hence Chinnamalai was forced to attack Coimbatore on his own. His army was defeated and he escaped from the British forces. Chinnamalai engaged in
and defeated the British in battles at
in 1801, Odanilai in 1802 and
In September 1804, the King of ,
was deprived of the traditional rights of
Temple which was a serious shock to the King and the people of . Consequently, in October 1804 a group of armed Paiks attacked the British at . This event alarmed the British force. , the chief of Army of Kalinga requested all the kings of the state to join hands for a common cause against the British. Rajguru was killed on 6 December 1806. After Rajguru's death,
commanded an armed rebellion against the East India Company's rule in Odisha which is known as .
States during the rebellion
The Indian rebellion of 1857 was a large-scale rebellion in the northern and central India against the British East India Company's rule. It was suppressed and the British government took control of the company. The conditions of service in the company's army and
increasingly came into conflict with the religious beliefs and prejudices of the . The predominance of members from the upper castes in the army, perceived loss of caste due to overseas travel, and rumours of secret designs of the government to convert them to Christianity led to deep discontent among the sepoys. The sepoys were also disillusioned by their low salaries and the racial discrimination practised by British officers in matters of promotion and privileges. The indifference of the British towards leading native Indian rulers such as the
and ex- and the annexation of
were political factors triggering dissent amongst Indians. The 's policy of annexation, the
(or escheat) applied by the British, and the projected removal of the descendants of the Great Mughal from their ancestral palace at
to the Qutb Minaar (near ) also angered some people.
The final spark was provided by the rumoured use of tallow (from cows) and lard (pig fat) in the newly introduced
rifle cartridges. Soldiers had to
with their teeth before loading them into their rifles, and the reported presence of cow and pig fat was religiously offensive to both Hindu and Muslim soldiers.
, a 29-year-old sepoy, was believed to be responsible for inspiring the Indian sepoys to rise against the British. Pandey revolted against his army regiment for protection of the cow, considered sacred by Hindus. In the first week of May 1857, he killed a higher officer in his regiment at
for the introduction of the rule. He was captured and was sentenced to death when the British took back control of the regiment.[] On 10 May 1857, the sepoys at
broke rank and turned on their commanding officers, killing some of them. They reached Delhi on 11 May, set the company's
on fire, and marched into the Red Fort, where they asked the , , to become their leader and reclaim his throne. The emperor was reluctant at first, but eventually agreed and was proclaimed Shehenshah-e-Hindustan by the rebels. The rebels also murdered much of the European, , and Christian population of the city.
Revolts broke out in other parts of
as well, where
followed the mutinies, leading to popular uprisings. The British were initially caught off-guard and were thus slow to react, but eventually responded with force. The lack of effective organisation among the rebels, coupled with the military superiority of the British, brought a rapid end to the rebellion. The British fought the main army of the rebels near Delhi, and after prolonged fighting and a siege, defeated them and retook the city on 20 September 1857. Subsequently, revolts in other centres were also crushed. The last significant battle was fought in
on 17 June 1858, during which
was killed. Sporadic fighting and , led by , continued until spring 1859, but most of the rebels were eventually subdued.
The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a major turning point in the history of modern India. While affirming the military and political power of the British, it led to significant change in how India was to be controlled by them. Under the , the Company was deprived of its involvement in ruling India, with its territory being transferred to the direct authority of the British government. At the apex of the new system was a , the , who was to be fo the
(Viceroy) was made responsible to him, while he in turn was responsible to the government. In a
made to the people of India,
promised equal opportunity of public service under British law, and also pledged to respect the rights of the native princes. The British stopped the policy of seizing land from the princes, decreed religious tolerance and began to admit Indians into the civil service (albeit mainly as subordinates). However, they also increased the number of British soldiers in relation to native Indian ones, and only allowed British soldiers to handle artillery.
was exiled to , Burma, where he died in 1862.
In 1876, in a controversial move Prime Minister
acceded to the Queen's request[] and passed legislation to give Queen Victoria the additional title of . Liberals in Britain objected that the title was foreign to British traditions.
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Image of the delegates to the first meeting of the Indian National Congress in Bombay, 1885.
The decades following the Rebellion were a period of growing political awareness, manifestation of Indian public opinion and emergence of Indian leadership at both national and provincial levels.
formed the East India Association in 1867 and
founded the
in 1876. Inspired by a suggestion made by , a retired British civil servant, seventy-two Indian delegates met in
in 1885 and founded the . They were mostly members of the upwardly mobile and successful western-educated provincial elites, engaged in professions such as law,
and journalism. At its inception, the Congress had no well-defined ideology and commanded few of the resources essential to a political organisation. Instead, it functioned more as a debating society that met annually to express its loyalty to the British Raj and passed numerous resolutions on less controversial issues such as civil rights or opportunities in government (especially in the civil service). These resolutions were submitted to the Viceroy's government and occasionally to the British Parliament, but the Congress's early gains were slight. "Despite its claim to represent all India, the Congress voiced the inter[] the number of participants from other social and economic backgrounds remained negligible." However, this period of history is still crucial because it represented the first political mobilisation of Indians, coming from all parts of the subcontinent and the first articulation of the idea of India as one nation, rather than a collection of independent princely states.
The influence of socio-religious groups such as
(started by ) and
(founded by
and others) became evident in pioneering reforms of Indian society. The work of men like , , , , , , Sir ,
and , as well as women such as the Scots–Irish , spread the passion for rejuvenation and freedom. The rediscovery of India's indigenous history by several European and Indian scholars also fed into the rise of nationalism among Indians.
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of , the triumvirate were popularly known as , changed the political discourse of the Indian independence movement.
By 1900, although the Congress had emerged as an all-India political organisation, it did not have the support of most Indian Muslims. Attacks by Hindu reformers against religious conversion, cow slaughter, and the preservation of
script deepened their concerns of minority status and denial of rights if the Congress alone were to represent the people of India. Sir
launched a movement for Muslim regeneration that culminated in the founding in 1875 of the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College at , Uttar Pradesh (renamed
in 1920). Its objective was to educate wealthy students by emphasising the compatibility of Islam with modern western knowledge. The diversity among India's Muslims, however, made it impossible to bring about uniform cultural and intellectual regeneration.
The nationalistic sentiments among Congress members led to the movement to be represented in the bodies of government, to have a say in the legislation and administration of India. Congressmen saw themselves as loyalists, but wanted an active role in governing their own country, albeit as part of the Empire. This trend was personified by , who went as far as contesting, successfully, an election to the , becoming its first Indian member.
was the first Indian nationalist to embrace
as the destiny of the nation[]. Tilak deeply opposed the then British education system that ignored and defamed India's culture, history and values. He resented the denial of freedom of expression for nationalists, and the lack of any voice or role for ordinary Indians in the affairs of their nation. For these reasons, he considered Swaraj as the natural and only solution. His popular sentence "Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it" became the source of inspiration for Indians.
In 1907, the Congress was split into two factions: The radicals, led by Tilak, advocated civil agitation and direct revolution to overthrow the British Empire and the abandonment of all things British. The moderates, led by leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji and , on the other hand wanted reform within the framework of British rule. Tilak was backed by rising public leaders like
and , who held the same point of view. Under them, India's three great states – , Bengal and
shaped the demand of the people and India's nationalism. Gokhale criticised Tilak for encouraging acts of violence and disorder. But the Congress of 1906 did not have public membership, and thus Tilak and his supporters were forced to leave the party.
But with Tilak's arrest, all hopes for an Indian offensive were stalled. The Congress lost credibility with the people. A Muslim deputation met with the Viceroy,
(1905–10), seeking concessions from the impending constitutional reforms, including special considerations in government service and electorates. The British recognised some of the 's petitions by increasing the number of elective offices reserved for Muslims in the . The Muslim League insisted on its separateness from the Hindu-dominated Congress, as the voice of a "nation within a nation".
was formed overseas in 1913 to fight for the Independence of India with members coming from the United States and Canada, as well as Shanghai, Hong Kong, and Singapore. Members of the party aimed for Hindu, Sikh, and Muslim unity against the British.
became aligned with Indian nationalism under the direction of , who saw alcohol as a foreign importation to the culture of the subcontinent.
was one of the youngest Indian revolutionaries tried and executed by the British.
In July 1901, , the Viceroy and Governor-General (), ordered the
supposedly for improvements in administrative efficiency in the huge and populous region. However, the Indians viewed the partition as an attempt by the British to disrupt the growing national movement in Bengal and divide the Hindus and Muslims of the region. The Bengali Hindu intelligentsia exerted considerable influence on local and national politics. The partition outraged Bengalis. Not only had the government failed to consult Indian public opinion, but the action appeared to reflect the British resolve to . Widespread agitation ensued in the streets and in the press, and the Congress advocated boycotting British products under the banner of , or indigenous industries. A growing movement emerged, focussing on indigenous Indian industries, finance, and education, which saw the founding of , the birth of Indian financial institutions and banks, as well as an interest in Indian culture and achievements in science and literature. Hindus showed unity by tying
on each other's wrists and observing Arandhan (not cooking any food). During this time, Bengali Hindu nationalists like , , and
began writing virulent newspaper articles challenging legitimacy of British rule in India in publications such as
and Sandhya, and were charged with sedition. Brahmabhandav Upadhyay, a Hindu newspaper editor who helped Tagore establish his school at Shantiniketan, was imprisoned and the first to die in British custody in the twentieth-century struggle for self-rule. The movement also witnessed violent , notable revolutionary being , who planted bombs near British government officials and police stations. Due to his activities against the British, he was arrested and hanged. At the time of his hanging, he was 18 years, 8 months 8 days old, making him one of the youngest revolutionaries in India.
The British newspaper, The Empire, wrote:
"Khudiram Bose was executed this morning...It is alleged that he mounted the scaffold with his body erect. He was cheerful and smiling."
was founded by the
(now ), in 1906, in the context of the circumstances that were generated over the partition of Bengal in 1905.[] Being a political party to secure the interests of the Muslim diaspora in , the Muslim League played a decisive role behind the creation of
joined the , which was the largest Indian political organisation. Like most of the Congress at the time, Jinnah did not favour outright self-rule, considering British influences on education, law, culture and industry as beneficial to India. Jinnah became a member of the sixty-member . The council had no real power or authority, and included a large number of un-elected pro-Raj loyalists and Europeans. Nevertheless, Jinnah was instrumental in the passing of the Child Marriages Restraint Act, the legitimisation of the Muslim
(religious endowments) and was appointed to the Sandhurst committee, which helped establish the
at . During the , Jinnah joined other Indian moderates in supporting the British war effort.
This photograph shows an emaciated Indian Army soldier who survived the , part of the campaign in Mesopotamia
began with an unprecedented outpouring of support towards Britain from within the mainstream political leadership, contrary to initial British fears of an Indian revolt. India contributed massively to the British war effort by providing men and resources. About 1.3 million Indian soldiers and laborers served in Europe, Africa and the Middle East, while both the Indian government and the princes sent large supplies of food, money and ammunition. However, Bengal and
remained hotbeds of . Nationalism in Bengal, increasingly closely linked with the , was significant enough to nearly paralyze the regional administration, whilst
were made by revolutionaries to trigger nationalist revolt in India.
None of the revolutionary conspiracies had significant impact inside India. The prospect of subversive violence and its effect on the popular war effort drew support amongst Indian population for special measures against anti-colonial activities in the form of , and no major mutinies occurred. However, the war-time conspiracies did lead to profound fears of insurrection among British officials, preparing them to use extreme force to frighten the Indians into submission.
In the aftermath of the First World War, high casualty rates, soaring inflation compounded by heavy taxation, a
and the disruption of trade during the war escalated human suffering in India.
The pre-war nationalist movement revived as moderate and extremist groups within the Congress submerged their differences in order to stand as a unified front. They argued their enormous services to the British Empire during the war demanded a reward, and demonstrated the Indian capacity for self-rule. In 1916, the Congress succeeded in forging the , a temporary alliance with the Muslim League over the issues of devolution of political power and the future of Islam in the region.
The British themselves adopted a "carrot and stick" approach in recognition of India's support during the war and in response to renewed nationalist demands. In August 1917, , the secretary of state for India, made the historic announcement in Parliament that the British policy for India was "increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration and the gradual development of self-governing institutions with a view to the progressive realization of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British Empire." The means of achieving the proposed measure were later enshrined in the , which introduced the principle of a dual mode of administration, or diarchy, in which both elected Indian legislators and appointed British officials shared power. The act also expanded the central and provincial legislatures and widened the franchise considerably. Diarchy set in motion certain real changes at the provincial level: a number of non-controversial or "transferred" portfolios, such as agriculture, local government, health, education, and public works, were handed over to Indians, while more sensitive matters such as finance, taxation, and maintaining law and order were retained by the provincial British administrators.
Gandhi in 1918, at the time of the Kheda and Champaran satyagrahas
, a revered philosopher, well known as the spiritual guru of
who sowed the virtues of
(Sitting L to R)
during 's 1917 .
Gandhi had been a leader of the Indian nationalist movement in South Africa and had been a vocal opponent of basic discrimination and abusive labour treatment as well as suppressive police control such as the . During these protests, Gandhi had perfected the concept of , which had been inspired by the philosophy of Baba
(famous for leading the
Movement in the
in 1872). In January 1914 (well before the First World War began) Gandhi was successful. The legislation against Indians was repealed and all Indian political prisoners were released by General . Gandhi accomplished this through extensive use of non-violent protests, such as boycotting, protest marching, and fasting by him and his followers.
Gandhi returned to India on 9 January 1915, and initially entered the political fray not with calls for a nation-state, but in support of the unified commerce-oriented territory that the Congress Party had been asking for. Gandhi believed that the industrial development and educational development that the Europeans had brought with them were required to alleviate many of India's problems. , a veteran Congressman and Indian leader, became Gandhi's mentor. Gandhi's ideas and strategies of non-violent
initially appeared impractical to some Indians and Congressmen. In Gandhi's own words, "civil disobedience is civil breach of immoral statutory enactments." It had to be carried out non-violently by withdrawing co-operation with the corrupt state. Gandhi had great respect for Lokmanya Tilak. His programmes were all inspired by Tilak's "Chatusutri" programme. It was at this point he met the prophet Ryan Chart, where he founded some of his most spiritual messages with his British colleague.[]
The positive impact of reform was seriously undermined in 1919 by the , named after the recommendations made the previous year to the
by the . The commission was set up to look into the war-time conspiracies by the nationalist organisations and recommend measures to deal with the problem in the post-war period. Rowlatt recommended the extension of the war-time powers of the
into the post-war period. The war-time act had vested the Viceroy's government with extraordinary powers to quell sedition by silencing the press, detaining
without trial, and arresting any individuals suspected of sedition or treason without a warrant. It was increasingly reviled within India due to widespread and indiscriminate use. Many popular leaders, including
and Ali brothers had been detained. Rowlatt act was, therefore, passed in the face of universal opposition among the (non-official) Indian members in the Viceroy's council. The extension of the act drew widespread opposition and criticism. In protest, a nationwide cessation of work () was called, marking the beginning of widespread, although not nationwide, popular discontent.
The agitation unleashed by the acts led to British attacks on demonstrators, culminating on 13 April 1919, in the
(also known as the Amritsar Massacre) in , Punjab. The British military commander, Brigadier-General , blocked the main, and only entrance, and ordered his soldiers to fire into an unarmed and unsuspecting crowd of some 15,000 men, women and children. They had assembled peacefully at Jallianwala Bagh, a walled courtyard, but Dyer had wanted to execute the imposed ban on all meetings and proposed to teach all Indians a lesson the harsher way. A total of 1,651 rounds were fired, killing 379 people (as according to an official B Indian officials' estimates ranged as high as 1,499 and wounding 1,137 in the massacre.) Dyer was forced to retire but was hailed as a hero in Britain, demonstrating to Indian nationalists that the Empire was beholden to public opinion in Britain, but not in India. The episode dissolved wartime hopes of home rule and goodwill and opened a rift that could not be bridged short of complete self-rule.
From 1920 to 1922, Gandhi started the Non-Cooperation Movement. At the Kolkata session of the Congress in September 1920, Gandhi convinced other leaders of the need to start a non-co-operation movement in support of Khilafat as well as for dominion status. The first satyagraha movement urged the use of
and Indian material as alternatives to those shipped from Britain. It also urged people to boycott British educational institu resign from g and forsake British titles and honours. Although this came too late to influence the framing of the new , the movement enjoyed widespread popular support, and the resulting unparalleled magnitude of disorder presented a serious challenge to foreign rule. However, Gandhi called off the movement because he was scared after , which saw the death of twenty-two policemen at the hands of an angry mob.
Membership in the party was opened to anyone prepared to pay a token fee, and a hierarchy of committees was established and made responsible for discipline and control over a hitherto amorphous and diffuse movement. The party was transformed from an elite organisation to one of mass national appeal and participation.
Gandhi was sentenced in 1922 to six years in prison, but was released after serving two. On his release from prison, he set up the
in , on the banks of river , established the newspaper Young India, and inaugurated a series of reforms aimed at the socially disadvantaged within Hindu society — the rural poor, and the .
This era saw the emergence of new generation of Indians from within the Congress Party, including , , ,
and others- who would later on come to form the prominent voices of the Indian self-rule movement, whether keeping with Gandhian Values, or, as in the case of Bose's , diverging from it.
The Indian political spectrum was further broadened in the mid-1920s by the emergence of both moderate and militant parties, such as the , ,
and the . Regional political organisations also continued to represent the interests of non- in ,
in Punjab. However, people like Mahakavi ,
and Neelakanda Brahmachari played a major role from Tamil Nadu in both self-rule struggle and fighting for equality for all castes and communities.
Many women participated in the movement, including Kasturba Gandhi (Gandhi's wife), Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, Muthulaxmi Reddy, Aruna Asaf Ali, and many others.
Following the rejection of the recommendations of the
by Indians, an all-party conference was held at
in May 1928. This was meant to instill a sense of Liberation among people. The conference appointed a drafting committee under
to draw up a constitution for India. The
session of the Indian National Congress asked the British government to accord dominion status to India by December 1929, or a countrywide civil disobedience movement would be launched. By 1929, however, in the midst of rising political discontent and increasingly violent regional movements, the call for complete sovereignty and end of British rule began to find increasing grounds within the Public. Under the presidency of
at his historic
session in December 1929,
adopted the idea of complete self-rule and end of British rule. It authorised the Working Committee to launch a civil disobedience movement throughout the country. It was decided that 26 January 1930 should be observed all over India as the
(complete self-rule) Day. Many Indian political parties and Indian revolutionaries of a wide spectrum united to observe the day with honour and pride.[]
In March 1931, the
was signed, and the government agreed to set all political prisoners free (Although, some of the great revolutionaries were not set free and the death sentence for Bhagat Singh and his two comrades was not taken back which further intensified the agitation against Congress not only outside it but within the Congress itself). For the next few years, the Congress and the government were locked in conflict and negotiations until what became the
could be hammered out. By then, the rift between the Congress and the Muslim League had become unbridgeable as each pointed the finger at the other acrimoniously. The Muslim League disputed the claim of the Congress to represent all people of India, while the Congress disputed the Muslim League's claim to voice the aspirations of all Muslims.
The Civil Disobedience Movement indicated a new part in the process of the Indian self-rule struggle. As a whole, it became a failure by itself, but it brought the Indian population together, under the Indian National Congress's leadership. The movement made the Indian people strive even more towards self-rule. The movement allowed the Indian community to revive their inner confidence and strength against the British Government. In addition, the movement weakened the authority of the British and aided in the end of the British Empire in India. Overall, the civil disobedience Movement was an essential achievement in the history of Indian self-rule.
with , 1944.
The , the voluminous and final constitutional effort at governing , articulated three major goals: establishing a loose federal structure, achieving provincial autonomy, and safeguarding minority interests through separate electorates. The federal provisions, intended to unite
and British India at the centre, were not implemented because of ambiguities in safeguarding the existing privileges of princes. In February 1937, however, provincial autonomy became a reality when the Congress emerged as the dominant party with a clear majority in five provinces and held an upper hand in two, while the Muslim League performed poorly.
In 1939, the Viceroy
declared India's entrance into the
without consulting provincial governments. In protest, the Congress asked all of its elected representatives to resign from the government. , the president of the , persuaded participants at the annual Muslim League session at
in 1940 to adopt what later came to be known as the , demanding the division of India into two separate sovereign states, one Muslim, the other H sometimes referred to as . Although the idea of
had been introduced as early as 1930, very few had responded to it. However, the volatile political climate and hostilities between the Hindus and Muslims transformed the idea of Pakistan into a stronger demand.
(center), and
(right) are considered among the most influential revolutionaries of the Indian independence movement.
Front page of the Tribune (25 March 1931), reporting the execution of Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev by the British.
Apart from a few stray incidents, armed rebellions against the British rulers did not occur before the beginning of the 20th century. The Indian revolutionary underground began gathering momentum through the first decade of the 20th century, with groups arising in Bengal, , , Bihar, , , and the
including what is now called . More groups were scattered around . Particularly notable movements arose in Bengal, especially around the
in 1905, and in . In the former case, it was the educated, intelligent and dedicated youth of the urban middle class
community that came to form the "Classic" Indian revolutionary, while the latter had an immense support base in the rural and Military society of the Punjab. In Bengal, the
of local youth groups and gyms (Akhra) in
in 1902, forming two prominent and somewhat independent arms in
identified as
(modern day ), and the
group (centred at ) respectively. Led by nationalists of the likes of
and his brother , the Samiti was influenced by philosophies as diverse as
propounded by Bengali literaetuer
and , , and
of . The Samiti was involved in a number of noted incidences of revolutionary terrorism against British interests and administration in India within the decade of its founding, including
to assassinate Raj officials whilst led by Ghosh brothers. In the meantime, in Maharashtra and Punjab arose similarly militant nationalist feelings. The District Magistrate of ,
was shot dead by
in December 1909, followed by the death of Robert D'Escourt Ashe at the hands of . Indian nationalism made headway through Indian societies as far as Paris and London. In London
under the patronage of
came under increasing scrutiny for championing and justifying violence in the cause of Indian nationalism, which found in Indian students in Britain and from Indian expatriates in
avid followers. By 1907, through Indian nationalist 's links to Russian revolutionary Nicholas Safranski, Indian groups including Bengal revolutionaries as well as India House under
were able to obtain manuals for manufacturing bombs. India House was also a source of arms and seditious literature that was rapidly distributed in India. In addition to The Indian Sociologist, pamphlets like Bande Mataram and Oh Martyrs! by Savarkar extolled revolutionary violence. Direct influences and incitement from India House were noted in several incidents of political violence, including assassinations, in India at the time. One of the two charges against Savarkar during his trial in Bombay was for abetting the murder of the District Magistrate of , , by
in December 1909. The arms used were directly traced through an Italian courier to India House. Ex-India House residents M.P.T. Acharya and V.V.S. Aiyar were noted in the
to have aided and influenced political assassinations, including the murder of Robert D'Escourt Ashe. The Paris-Safranski link was strongly suggested by French police to be involved in a 1907 attempt in Bengal to derail the train carrying the Lieutenant-Governor . The activities of nationalists abroad is believed to have shaken the loyalty of a number of native regiments of the . The assassination of
in the hands of
was highly publcised and saw increasing surveillance and suppression of Indian nationalism. These were followed by the
on the life of Viceroy of India. Following this, the nucleus of networks formed in , the , nationlalists in Punjab, and the nationalism that arose among Indian expatriates and labourers in North America, a different movement began to emerge in the North American , culminating in the
of World War I led by
However, the emergence of the Gandhian movement slowly began to absorb the different revolutionary groups. The Bengal Samiti moved away from its philosophy of violence in the 1920s, when a number of its members identified closely with the
and Gandhian non-violent movement. Revolutionary nationalist violence saw a resurgence after the collapse of Gandhian Noncooperation movement in 1922. In Bengal, this saw reorganisation of groups linked to the Samiti under the leadership of
and . A spate of violence led up to enactment of the
in the early 1920s, which recalled the powers of incarceration and detention of the Defence of India Act. In north India, remnants of Punjab and Bengalee revolutionary organisations reorganised, notably under , founding the
in north India. The HSRA had strong influences from leftist ideologies.
(HSRA) was formed under the leadership of .
was done largely by the members of HSRA. A number of Congress leaders from Bengal, especially , were accused by the British Government of having links with and allowing patronage to the revolutionary organisations during this time. The violence and radical philosophy revived in the 1930s, when revolutionaries of the Samiti and the HSRA were involved in was involved in the
and other attempts against the administration in British India and Raj officials.
threw a bomb inside the
on 8 April 1929 protesting against the passage of the Public Safety Bill and the Trade Disputes Bill while raising slogans of "", though no one was killed or injured in the bomb incident. Bhagat Singh surrendered after the bombing incident and a trial was conducted. Sukhdev and Rajguru were also arrested by police during search operations after the bombing incident. Following the trial (Central Assembly Bomb Case), Bhagat Singh,
were hanged in 1931.
in order to direct particularly the Muslims towards the self-rule movement. Some of its members left for the Indian National Congress then led by , while others identified more closely with . The Jugantar branch formally dissolved in 1938. On 13 March 1940,
shot (the last political murder outside India), generally held responsible for the , in London. However, the revolutionary movement gradually disseminated into the Gandhian movement. As the political scenario changed in the late 1930s — with the mainstream leaders considering several options offered by the British and with religious politics coming into play — revolutionary activities gradually declined. Many past revolutionaries joined mainstream politics by joining
and other parties, especially communist ones, while many of the activists were kept under hold in different jails across the country.
Within a short time of its inception, these organisations became the focus of an extensive police and intelligence operations. Operations against
saw founding of the
of . The intelligence operations against India House saw the founding of the
which later grew to be the Intelligence bureau in independent India. Heading the intelligence and missions against Ghadarite movement and India revolutionaries was the
section, and at one point invokved the
detective agency. Notable officers who led the police and intelligence operations against Indian revolutionaries, or were involved in it, at various time included , , , ,
and , as well as . The threat posed by the activities of the Samiti in Bengal during , along with the threat of a , saw the passage of . These measures saw the arrest, internment, transportations and execution of a number of revolutionaries linked to the organisation, and was successful in crushing the East Bengal Branch. In the aftermath of the war, the
recommended extending the Defence of India Act (as the ) to thwart any possible revival of the Samiti in Bengal and the Ghadarite movement in Punjab. In the 1920s,
led the ill-fated , during which a band of tribal leaders and other sympathisers fought against the British Raj. He was referred to as "Manyam Veerudu" ("Hero of the Jungles") by the local people. After the passing of the 1882 Madras Forest Act, its restrictions on the free movement of tribal peoples in the forest prevented them from engaging in their traditional
() agricultural system, which involved . Raju led a protest movement in the border areas of the Godavari Agency in
(present-day ). Inspired by the patriotic zeal of revolutionaries in , Raju raided police stations in and around , , , Krishna-devi-peta, , ,
and . Raju and his followers stole guns and ammunition and killed several British army officers, including Scott Coward near Dammanapalli. The British campaign lasted for nearly a year from December 1922. Raju was eventually trapped by the British in the forests of Chintapalli then tied to a tree and shot dead with a rifle.
Government of India through the Ministry of Home Affairs has later notified 38 movements/struggles across Indian territories as the ones that led to the country gaining self-rule and ending the . The
is one of these 39 agitations.
were held and the Congress came to power in seven of the eleven provinces. This was a strong indicator of the Indian people's support for complete self-rule.
When the Second World War started,
unilaterally declared India a belligerent on the side of Britain, without consulting the elected Indian representatives. In opposition to Linlithgow's action, the entire Congress leadership resigned from the provincial and local governments. The Muslims and Sikhs, by contrast, strongly supported the war effort and gained enormous stature in London. Defying Congress, millions of Indians supported the war effort, and indeed the
became the largest volunteer force, numbering 2,500,000 men during the war.
Especially during the
in 1940, Gandhi resisted calls for massive civil disobedience movements that came from within as well as outside his party, stating he did not seek India's self-rule out of the ashes of a destroyed Britain. In 1942, the Congress launched the
movement. There was some violence but the Raj cracked down and arrested tens of thousands of Congress leaders, including all the main national and provincial figures. They were not released until the end of the war was in sight in 1945.
The self-rule movement saw the rise of three movements: The first of these, the
(9 August 1925) was led by Indian youth unde second was the
movement led by
which saw its inception early in the war and joined Germany and Japan to fight B the third one saw its inception in August 1942, was led by
and reflected the common man resulting the failure of the
to reach a consensus with the Indian political leadership over the transfer of power after the war.
greets , leader of the . Circa April 1942.
The entry of India into the war was strongly opposed by , who had been elected President of the Congress in 1938 and 1939, but later resigned due to differences in opinion with Gandhi. After resignation he formed his own wing separated from the mainstream congress leadership known as
which was the centre of ex-congressmen
however he remained emotionally attached with him for the remainder of his life. Bose then founded the . In 1940, a year after war broke out, the British had put Bose under house arrest in Calcutta. However, he escaped and made his way through
help for raising an army to fight the British. The
comprising 's Indian POWs was formed. However, in light of Germany's changing fortunes, a German land invasion of India became untenable and Hitler advised Bose to go to Japan and arranged for a submarine. Bose was ferried to Japanese Southeast Asia, where he formed the , a Provisional Free Indian Government in exile, and reorganised the
composed of Indian
and volunteering Indian
in South-East Asia, with the help of the Japanese. Its aim was to reach India as a fighting force that would build on public resentment to inspire revolts among Indian soldiers to defeat the British raj.
founded the
and revamped the .
The INA was to see action against the allies, including the , in the forests of Arakan,
and in , laying
with the . During the war, the
and handed over by them to the INA.
The INA failed owing to disrupted logistics, poor supplies from the Japanese, and lack of training. It surrendered unconditionally to the British in Singapore in 1945. Bose, however, attempted to escape to Japanese-held Manchuria in an attempt to escape to the Soviet Union, marking the end of the entire Azad Hind movement.
The Quit India Movement (Bharat Chhodo Andolan) or the August Movement was a
movement in
which commenced on 8 August 1942 in response to 's call for immediate self-rule by Indians and against sending Indians to World War II. He asked all teachers to leave their schools, and other Indians to leave their respective jobs and take part in this movement. Due to Gandhi's political influence, his request was followed by a massive proportion of the population. In addition, the INC led the Quit India Movement to demand the British to leave India and to transfer the political power to INC.
During the movement, Gandhi and his followers continued to use non-violence against British rule. This movement was where Gandhi gave his famous message, "Do or Die!", and this message spread towards the Indian community. In addition, this movement was addressed directly to women as "disciplined soldiers of Indian freedom" and they had to keep the war for independence to go on (against British rule).
Procession in
during the .
At the outbreak of war, the Congress Party had during the Wardha meeting of the working-committee in September 1939, passed a resolution conditionally supporting the fight against fascism, but were rebuffed when they asked for self-rule in return. In March 1942, faced with an increasingly dissatisfied sub-continent only reluctantly participating in the war, and deteriorations in the war situation in Europe and , and with growing dissatisfactions among Indian troops- especially in Europe- and among the civilian population in the sub-continent, the British government sent a delegation to India under , in what came to be known as the . The purpose of the mission was to negotiate with the
a deal to obtain total co-operation during the war, in return of progressive devolution and distribution of power from the crown and the
to elected Indian legislature. However, the talks failed, having failed to address the key demand of a timeframe towards self-government, and of definition of the powers to be relinquished, essentially portraying an offer of limited dominion-status that was wholly unacceptable to the Indian movement. To force the British Raj to meet its demands and to obtain definitive word on total self-rule, the Congress took the decision to launch the Quit India Movement.
The aim of the movement was to force the British Government to the negotiating table by holding the Allied war effort hostage. The call for determined but
that signified the certitude that Gandhi foresaw for the movement is best described by his call to Do or Die, issued on 8 August at the
in Bombay, since renamed August Kranti Maidan (August Revolution Ground). However, almost the entire Congress leadership, and not merely at the national level, was put into confinement less than 24 hours after Gandhi's speech, and the greater number of the Congress khiland were to spend the rest of the war in jail.
On 8 August 1942, the Quit India resolution was passed at the Mumbai session of the All India Congress Committee (AICC). The draft proposed that if the British did not accede to the demands, a massive Civil Disobedience would be launched. However, it was an extremely controversial decision. At Gowalia Tank, , Gandhi urged Indians to follow a non-violent civil disobedience. Gandhi told the masses to act as citizens of a sovereign nation and not to follow the orders of the British. The British, already alarmed by the advance of the Japanese army to the India–Burma border, responded the next day by imprisoning Gandhi at the
in . The Congress Party's Working Committee, or national leadership was arrested all together and imprisoned at the Ahmednagar Fort. They also banned the party altogether. All the major leaders of the INC were arrested and detained. As the masses were leaderless the protest took a violent turn. Large-scale protests and demonstrations were held all over the country. Workers remained absent en masse and strikes were called. The movement also saw widespread acts of sabotage, Indian under-ground organisation carried out bomb attacks on allied supply convoys, government buildings were set on fire, electricity lines were disconnected and transport and communication lines were severed. The disruptions were under control in a few weeks and had little impact on the war effort. The movement soon became a leaderless act of defiance, with a number of acts that deviated from Gandhi's principle of non-violence. In large parts of the country, the local underground organisations took over the movement. However, by 1943, Quit India had petered out.
All the other major parties rejected the Quit India plan, and most cooperated closely with the British, as did the princely states, the civil service and the police. The
supported the Raj and grew rapidly in membership, and in influence with the British.
There was opposition to the Quit India Movement from several political quarters who were fighting for Indian self-rule. Hindu nationalist parties like the
openly opposed the call and boycotted the Quit India Movement. , the president of the Hindu Mahasabha at that time, even went to the extent of writing a letter titled "Stick to your Posts", in which he instructed Hindu Sabhaites who happened to be "members of municipalities, local bodies, legislatures or those serving in the army...to stick to their posts" across the country, and not to join the Quit India Movement at any cost.
The other Hindu nationalist organisation, and Mahasabha affiliate
(RSS) had a tradition of keeping aloof from the anti-British Indian self-rule movement since its founding by
in 1925. In 1942, the RSS, under
completely abstained from joining in the Quit India Movement as well. The Bombay government (British) appreciated the RSS as such, by noting that,
"the Sangh has scrupulously kept itself within the law, and in particular, has refrained from taking part in the disturbances that broke out in August 1942".
The British Government stated that the RSS was not at all supporting any civil disobedience against them, and as such their other political activities(even if objectionable) can be overlooked. Further, the British Government also asserted that at Sangh meetings organised during the times of anti-British movements started and fought by the ,
"speakers urged the Sangh members to keep aloof from the congress movement and these instructions were generally observed" .
As such, the British government did not crack down on the RSS and Hindu Mahasabha at all. The RSS head (sarsanghchalak) during that time,
later openly admitted to the fact that the RSS did not participate in the Quit India Movement. However, such an attitude during the Indian independence movement also led to the Sangh being viewed with distrust and anger, both by the general Indian public, as well as certain members of the organisation itself. In Golwalkar’s own words,
“In 1942 also, there was a strong sentiment in the hearts of many. At that time too, the routine work of the Sangh continued. Sangh decided not to do anything directly. ‘Sangh is the organisation of inactive people, their talks have no substance’ was the opinion uttered not only by outsiders but also our own swayamsevaks”
Overall, the Quit India Movement turned out to be not very successful and only lasted until 1943. It drew away from Gandhi's tactic of non- it eventually became a rebellious act without any real leader.
After two Japanese attacks on
in late February and early March 1942, relations between the British officers and their Indian troops broke down. On the night of 10 March, the Indian troops assisted by Sikh policemen mutinied, killing five British soldiers and imprisoning the remaining 21 Europeans on the island. Later on 31 March, a Japanese fleet arrived at the island and the Indians surrendered.
encompasses a
and subsequent
by Indian sailors of the Royal Indian revolt on board ship and shore establishments at Bombay () harbour on 18 February 1946. From the initial flashpoint in Bombay, the mutiny spread and found support throughout , from
and ultimately came to involve 78 ships, 20 shore establishments and 20,000 sailors.
The agitations, mass strikes, demonstrations and consequently support for the mutineers, therefore continued several days even after the mutiny had been called off. Along with this, the assessment may be made that it described in crystal clear terms to the government that the
could no longer be universally relied upon for support in crisis, and even more it was more likely itself to be the source of the sparks that would ignite trouble in a country fast slipping out of the scenario of political settlement.
On 3 June 1947, Viscount , the last British , announced the partitioning of British India into India and . With the speedy passage through the British Parliament of the , at 11:57 on
Pakistan was declared a separate nation, and at 12:02, just after midnight, on , India also became a sovereign and democratic nation. Eventually, 15 August became the Independence Day for India, due to the ending of British rule over India. On that 15 August, both Pakistan and India had the right to remain in or remove themselves from the British Commonwealth. In 1949, India decided to remain in the commonwealth.
Violent clashes between Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims followed. Prime Minister Nehru and deputy prime minister Sardar
invited Mountbatten to continue as . He was replaced in June 1948 by . Patel took on the responsibility of bringing into the Indian Union 565 princely states, steering efforts by his "iron fist in a velvet glove" policies, exemplified by the use of military force to integrate
into India (). On the other hand, Nehru kept the issue of
in his hands.
The Constituent Assembly, headed by the prominent lawyer, reformer and Dalit leader, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was tasked with creating the constitution of free India. The Constituent Assembly completed the work of drafting the constitution on 26 November 1949; on 26 January 1950, the
was officially proclaimed. The Constituent Assembly elected Dr.
as the first , taking over from Governor General Rajgopalachari. Subsequently, the French ceded
in 1951, and
and its remaining Indian colonies in 1954. India
and Portugal's other
in 1961, and
voted to join the Indian Union in 1975.
Following self-rule in 1947, India remained in the , and
have been friendly. There are many areas in which the two countries seek stronger ties for mutual benefit, and there are also strong cultural and social ties between the two nations. The UK has an ethnic Indian population of over 1.6 million. In 2010, Prime Minister
described Indian – British relations as a "New ".
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